Clarifying the spatial layout of ecological functional zones and the evolution patterns of trade-offs and synergies among multiple ecosystem services is helpful to formulate region-specific management strategies and is fundamentally important for scientific ecosystem management and sustainable development. We analyzed the spatiotemporal variations of six ecosystem services (ES) in Anhui Province from 1990 to 2020, including biodiversity maintenance, water yield, habitat quality, carbon storage, food supply, and soil retention. The multiple ecosystem service landscape index was used to assess comprehensive ecosystem service capacity. The self-organizing mapping algorithm was used to identify ecosystem service bundles. We conducted ecological functional zoning and investigated the trade-off and synergy among ES at both regional scale and within different service bundles. The results showed that during 1990-2020, construction land and forest exhibited increasing trends, increased by 121.8% and 1.2% respectively, while cropland, grassland, water, and unused land all decreased. Habitat quality and carbon storage showed decreasing trends, while the other four ESs exhibited overall increasing trend. Food supply displayed a pattern of low in the south and high in the north, whereas all other ESs showed a pattern of high in the south and low in the north. Based on the identified ecosystem service bundles, the study area was classified into three functional zones. The grain production area accounted for the largest proportion, while the ecological conservation area and the ecological transition area maintained roughly equal proportions. The ecological transition zone expanded faster than the ecological conservation zone. At the regional scale, there were trade-offs between food supply and other ESs, while there were synergies in the remaining five ESs. Due to the influences from human activities, land use types and climate change, the trade-off and synergy relationships among ESs within different service bundles exhibited varying degrees of heterogeneity compared to those at the regional scale.

With the acceleration of urbanization and industrialization, the impact of human activities on ecosystem services has been increased. Scientifically assessing such impact has become a hot issue in ecological studies. Understanding the influence of human activities on ecosystem services is crucial for ecological management and sustainable development. By applying InVEST model, bivariate spatial autocorrelation, and generalized additive model, we explored the spatiotemporal pattern and spatial aggregation characteristics between human activities and key ecosystem services, such as water yield, soil conservation, carbon sequestration, and habitat quality in south of Jiangxi Province from 2000 to 2020, and analyzed the spatiotemporal relationships between human activities and ecosystem services. The results showed that from 2000 to 2020, the intensity of human activities in south of Jiangxi Province was generally low but showed an increasing trend, with high-intensity activity areas concentrating in the central urban districts of counties and cities. Water yield and soil conservation services initially increased then declined, while carbon sequestration and habitat quality generally decreased, with higher values in the south and lower values in the north. There was significant spatial heterogeneity of human activities and ecosystem services at the township scale. The intensity of human activities showed a significant positive correlation with water yield, while it was significantly negatively correlated with soil conservation, carbon sequestration, and habitat quality. There was a nonlinear spatiotemporal relationship between human activities and ecosystem services, especially for water yield which was particularly complex. Our findings would provide valuable insights for the scientific management and sustainable development of natural resources in south of Jiangxi Province.

Poyang Lake Basin is an important agricultural production area in China and a globally important wetland reserve. Ecosystem services of this region play a pivotal role in China’s and even the global sustainable deve-lopment. Studying the responses of trade-offs and synergies of ecosystem services to the regional land-use changes in Poyang Lake Basin is of great significance in guiding the management of national land space, and in enhancing ecosystem services. We used the InVEST model to quantitatively assess carbon storage service (CSS), food provisioning service (GP) and water purification service (SWP) of Poyang Lake Basin in 2000, 2010 and 2020. Two sampling transects, i.e., transect 1 and 2, were delineated for the main terrain of plains and hills in the basin. Based on this, we used wavelet coherence analysis to measure the trade-offs and synergies between several ecosystem services, and applied linear regression to identify their responses to land use changes in Poyang Lake Basin. The results showed that, in the transect 1 and transect 2, the proportion of samples with positive correlation between CSS and SWP in 2000, 2010, 2020 were 82.3% and 92.9%, 79.0% and 94.8%, 91.2% and 94.1%, respectively, showing synergistic relationship, the proportion of samples with negative correlation between CSS and GP were 86.8% and 96.8%, 81.0% and 96.7%, 76.0% and 92.5%, and the sample proportion of negative correlation between SWP and GP were 80.5% and 91.5%, 80.9% and 91.9%, 100% and 99.8%, respectively, which showed a trade-off relationship. In the plains, woodlands had the strongest influence on ecosystem service trade-offs and synergies, with wavelet coherence means of -0.54, -0.77, and 0.62 for CSS and GP, SWP and GP, and CSS and SWP, respectively. In hilly areas, unutilized land had the strongest impact on the synergistic relationship between CSS and SWP with a wavelet coherence mean of 0.84, and built-up land had the greatest impact on the trade-off relationship between CSS and GP, and SWP and GP with wavelet coherence means of -0.79 and -0.72, respectively. The response of ecosystem service trade-off/synergistic relationship to land use conflict was not significant. In the plain area, the synergistic relationship between CSS and SWP was negatively correlated with land use intensity, and the trade-off relationship between CSS and GP, and SWP and GP was positively correlated with land use intensity. The pattern in the hilly area was the opposite to the plain area. The protection of ecosystem services and spatial control of land in Poyang Lake Basin should be managed according to different land types.

Ecological management zoning is the key to cope with the imbalance between ecosystem service supply and demand induced by rapid urbanization, and it is of great significance in solving the problems of ecological damage and impaired ecosystem services. Taking Huhhot, a typical city in arid and semi-arid areas, as an example, we measured the supply of four typical ecosystem services, namely, water yield (WY), carbon storage (CS), soil conservation (SC), and habitat quality (HQ), from 2000 to 2020 using InVEST model, and measured the demand based on multi-source data. We used the Z-score standardization method and the coupling coordination degree model to analyze the matching types of ecosystem service supply-demand and the coupling coordination degree at the grid scale, and delineated the ecological management zoning. The results showed that the supply of WY and SC increased and the supply of CS and HQ decreased between 2000 and 2020. The supply of ecosystem services was lower in the central city and higher in the northern mountains and southern hills. There was an overall upward trend in the demand for four ecosystem services. The demand for WY was higher in the central and northern parts. The demand for CS and HQ was higher near the central city. The demand for SC was higher in the northern mountains and southern hills. There was a mismatch between the supply of and demand for ecosystem services, with areas of low supply and high demand for WY, CS and HQ in the vicinity of the central city. The average value of the coupling coordination degree of supply and demand was 0.46, which was on the verge of becoming dysfunctional. Hohhot City was divided into four ecological management zones, i.e. ecological function protection zones focusing on ecological conservation, ecological conservation zones focusing on ecological protection and construction, ecological general protection zones to promote economic development, and important urban zones focusing on high-quality development.

Ordos City is located within the Yellow River ‘Ji Zi Bend’. Clarifying the spatio-temporal variations and trade-offs/synergies of ecosystem services is of great significance for ecological protection and high-quality development of the Yellow River Basin. Based on the InVEST model and remote sensing data, we evaluated the ecosystem services of soil conservation, carbon storage, water conservation, and net primary productivity (NPP) in Ordos City from 2000 to 2020, and analyzed their spatio-temporal variations. We used correlation analysis to explore the trade-offs/synergies relationship among the four ecosystem services, and further revealed the trade-off/synergy intensity and its driving factors by combing the trade-off/synergy index and random forest model. The results showed that the typical ecosystem services in Ordos City showed an overall upward trend from 2000 to 2020. Total soil conservation increased by 3.47×10⁸ t. Carbon storage increased by 0.28×10⁸ t. Water conservation increased by 0.76×10⁷ m³. The annual average NPP increased by 349.54 g C·m^-2. Among all the land use types, grassland and cultivated land had the greatest positive effect on the improvement of regional ecosystem services. Except for the uncorrelated relationships between carbon storage and soil conservation and NPP, the relationships among other ecosystem ser-vices were significantly synergistic. There were trade-offs between soil conservation, NPP, and water conservation in some areas. The main factors driving the intensity of trade-offs/synergies among ecosystem services in Ordos City were rainfall, temperature, slope, and population density. In general, the four typical ecosystem services in Ordos City showed favorable development trends. Based on the spatio-temporal heterogeneity of ecosystem services and the driving factors of tradeoff/synergy intensity, more appropriate strategies for continuous improvement of ecosystem services should be formulated in the future.

Improving the theoretical framework of natural resource evaluation is beneficial to regional natural resource management and holds great significance for the development of new quality productivity. Based on Coase’s theorem, externality theory, ecosystem service theory and assessment requirements, we constructed a conceptual framework, green gold funnel, to screen indicators for the ecological value assessment of nationally owned natural resources. Taking Meiling National Forest Park in Jiangxi Province as an example, we explored the application of this framework in the ecological value assessment scenarios of nationally owned natural forest resources. The results showed that in 2022, the indicators for the ecological value of nationally owned natural resources included timber product supply, water conservation, carbon sequestration, wellness and recreation, and the additive value of landscape. The ecological value of nationally owned natural resources in the experimental area in 2022 was 503.235 million yuan, with wellness and recreation taking the dominant contributors, indicating that the green gold funnel could efficiently select the indicators for assessing the ecological value of nationally owned natural resources. We proposed a green gold funnel conceptual framework for the screening of indicators for ecological value assessment of nationally owned natural resources, and verified its effectiveness with examples, which would provide a scientific basis for the ecological value assessment of nationally owned natural resources.

Landscape functional spaces, as landscape units that fulfill various societal needs, may constrain regional ecological conservation and socio-economic development when internal imbalances occur between resource inputs and benefit outputs. Taking the Central Yunnan Urban Agglomeration as a case, we constructed an evaluation index system for land use inputs and benefit outputs across different landscape functional spaces, analyzed the spatiotemporal patterns of input-output relationships, employed a coupling coordination model to assess input-output coordination across landscape functional spaces. We constructed four different priority coordination scenarios for input and output: production coordination priority, living coordination priority, ecological coordination priority, and planning orientation priority, and further used the BP-ANN model to simulate optimization schemes for landscape functional spaces under the four various coordination scenarios. The results showed that, from 2000 to 2020, ecological aspects consistently accounted for the highest land use inputs in the Central Yunnan Urban Agglomeration, with ecological functions remaining the primary benefit output, while living benefits progressively increased. The overall input-output coordination index improved slightly, rising from 0.43 in 2000 to 0.46 in 2020, predominantly driven by enhanced coordination in production functional spaces. The landscape structure of the Central Yunnan Urban Agglomeration exhibited distinct adjustment requirements under four scenarios. Among them, the production coordination priority scenario should adjust the land layout, the ecological coordination priority scenario should increase the scale of land investment, the living coordination priority scenario and planning orientation priority scenario adjust the land layout while increasing land investment. This study would provide insights into coordinating internal functional spaces in urban agglomerations through land use adjustment.

Clarifying the impacts of human activities and vegetation cover on key ecosystem services (ESs) is of significance for promoting ecological management and achieving sustainable development in ecologically fragile areas. We quantified four key ESs (net primary production, water yield, habitat quality, soil conversation) of the Loess Hilly-Gully region of Northern Shaanxi. We analyzed the spatial and temporal variations of human activities, vegetation cover, and ESs, as well as the impacts of human activities and vegetation cover on ESs by using correlation analyses and segmented linear regressions. Human activities were quantified based on night-time lighting index, population density, and land use data. Results showed that soil conservation, water yield, habitat quality, and total ecosystem service (TES) of the study area had shown a fluctuating upward trend from 2000 to 2020, and that net primary productivity showed a significant increase. The human activity index (HAI) firstly declined and then increased, with an overall downward trend, and the average annual value declined by 17.1%. The fractional vegetation coverage (FVC) first increased and then declined, with an overall rising trend, and the average annual value rose by 9.2%. There was a negative correlation between human activities and ESs, and synergistic relationships between vegetation cover and key ESs, except water production. HAI on ESs firstly decreased and then increased. The impact of FVC on ESs was constantly increasing, and the adaptability of ecosystem services to vegetation changes was gradually strengthening. Our results could provide a reference for the formulation of ecological restoration strategies in ecologically fragile areas.

Land use change drives carbon storage in terrestrial ecosystems. Understanding the spatio-temporal varia-tion of land use and carbon storage is important for improving carbon sink capacity and achieving the carbon neutrality goal. With InVEST-PLUS model, we evaluated spatio-temporal variation of land use change and ecosystem carbon storage in Hebei Province, explored their variations from 2000 to 2020, and predicted land use changes and carbon storage in 2040. The results showed that cultivated land, forest, and grassland were dominant vegetation types from 2000 to 2020. The area of cultivated land decreased by 7011.1 km², and the construction land increased by 7479.6 km². The conversion of cultivated land to construction land was the predominant form of land transfer. Carbon storage in Hebei decreased by 3.6×10⁷ t from 2000 to 2020, with the conversion of cultivated land and grassland to construction land being the main reason for such rapid decline of carbon storage. Carbon storage was higher in the northwest and lower in the southeast. From 2020 to 2040, under natural development scenario, ecological protection scenario, and economic development scenario, the carbon storage of Hebei Province would increase by 4.0×10⁷, 5.1×10⁷, and 5.9×10⁷ t, respectively. The main carbon pools will still be cultivated land, forest, and grassland. In the future, it would be necessary to protect carbon sequestration resources such as forest and grassland, optimize land use pattern with the goal of reducing carbon emissions, and protect areas with high carbon density to further enhance their carbon sequestration capacity.

The “dual carbon” goal of China is a major strategic decision for solving critical resource and environmental constraints and fulfilling the inherent requirement for harmonious coexistence between human society and nature. Enhancing vegetation carbon sequestration is a crucial pathway to achieving the “dual carbon” goal. Quantitative simulation of regional vegetation carbon sequestration potential is vital for optimizing land use patterns and securing the smooth achievement of the “dual carbon” goal. In this context, we used a similar habitat method to simu-late vegetation carbon sequestration potential under natural conditions on Loess Plateau. Through potential classification-demand categorization-management zoning, we delineated carbon sequestration management zones for Loess Plateau and proposed specific strategies. The results showed that total vegetation carbon sequestration of Loess Plateau increased from 214.32 million t to 354.92 million t from 2000 to 2020, representing a growth of 65.6%. Spatially, a gradual increase was found from northwest to southeast, with high-value areas distributed in mountainous regions, such as the Qinling Mountains, Lyuliang Mountains, Ziwuling, and Zhongtiao Mountains. Urban areas with relatively advanced urbanization and their surrounding zones were characterized by low values. Under natural conditions, the average vegetation carbon sequestration potential on Loess Plateau was 832.71 g·m^-2, representing an increase of 52.3% compared to the 2020 baseline, resulting in an additional carbon sequestration of 185.76 million t. Based on the remaining carbon sequestration potential and the distribution pattern of the production-living-ecology space, the Loess Plateau could be classified into nine categories, including important carbon sink enhancement area, ecological carbon sink restoration area, urban green space development area, ecological carbon sink conservation area, agricultural carbon sink enhancement area, urban carbon sink consolidation area, ecological carbon sink control area, green agricultural development area, and economic development carbon control area. Carbon sequestration enhancement and management strategies specifically tailored to each zone were proposed. The findings would provide valuable support for regional low-carbon development and landscape management under the “dual carbon” goal.

Luoshan is the most important ecological barrier and water conservation land in the central arid zone of Ningxia. To explore the impact of terrain factors on the ecosystem service value (ESV) of Luoshan grassland, we used the revised ecosystem service value equivalent to estimate ESV based on remote sensing images in 2021, and analyzed its spatial distribution characteristics and terrain gradient effects. The results showed that the total ESV of Luoshan grassland was 34.18×10⁷ yuan, with desert steppe accounting for the highest proportion (50.7%). Among all the service types, the ESV of regulation service was the largest, which was 22.11×10⁷ yuan. The ESV was higher in the south region and lower in the north region, higher in the west region and lower in the east region. There was a strong spatial dependence of ESV, forming a spatial pattern of two poles gathering. The ESV of grassland showed topographic differentiation, which decreased first and then increased with the increases of elevation. The ESV increased with slope and terrain index, with the lowest ESV on the north slope and the highest ESV on the northeast slope. The results can provide scientific basis for the optimization of ecosystem pattern and grassland management in Luoshan.

Clarifying the potential spatial correlation characteristics of different cultural ecosystem service (CES) types and their influencing factors is a prerequisite for effective management of spatial resources. However, the quantification and spatialization of CES are great challenges in CES research. Taking Wuyishan National Park (Fujian region) as an example, we constructed a PPGIS-MaxEnt-SOM model to identify and quantify CES points with the assistance of a public participation geographic information system, expanded the point data into area partitions by using the maximum entropy modeling and realized the identification of a cultural ecosystem service bundle (CESB) with multi-type CES combinations through a self-organizing feature map network, and explored the influencing factors of these CES and CESB. The results showed that the six types of CES (aesthetic, cultural and educational, entertainment, health, inspiration, and local identity services) were mainly distributed in the eastern scenic spots and sporadically distributed in the central and western regions. The location of recreation resources in the CES hotspot area was similar to that on the tour route of the eastern scenic spots, showing a distribution pattern of one belt and two cores. CESB could be divided into four types: aesthetic-health service bundle, entertainment-aesthetic service bundle, culture-inspiration service bundle, and multi-functional service bundle, which presented the spatial pattern of outward classification and divergence with multi-functional service bundle as the center. Natural factors such as landscape pavilion and water attraction were the key factors influencing aesthetic service, entertainment service, local identity service, aesthetic-health services bundle, entertainment-aesthetic service bundle, and multi-functional service bundle. Health service, inspiration service, cultural and educational service, and culture-inspiration service bundle were mainly affected by factors such as historical and cultural sites, and distance from road. Overall, the PPGIS-MaxEnt-SOM model can map CES geospatially to realize the spatial identification of CESB and provide a new perspective and method for quantifying CES spatial problems.

Mismatch between supply and demand of ecosystem services will affect regional equity and restrict regional sustainable development. The formulation of reasonable ecological compensation standards can effectively coordinate regional environmental protection and economic development. At present, the ecological compensation mechanism of cultivated land is rarely adressed, which is in the conceptual analysis stage and lacks quantitative evaluation. Based on the supply and demand pattern of food supply services in Jiangxi Province from 2000 to 2020, we identified the supply and demand areas of food supply services, introduced comparative ecological radiant force model to quantify the flow of food supply services, and quantitatively assessed the ecological compensation standard of cultivated land. The results showed that there was a mismatch between supply and demand of food supply services in Jiangxi. The regional supply and demand relationship changed from deficit to surplus but the difference decreased. The degree of coupling coordination was relatively low. The food supply service flow changed from rapid rise to slow rise, flowing from the central part of Jiangxi to the surrounding areas. The total amount of ecological compensation for cultivated land continues to rise, from 2.214 billion yuan in 2000 to 12.638 billion yuan in 2020. The payment direction of cultivated land ecological compensation in Jiangxi was mainly characterized by the compensation of cultivated land from economically developed districts and counties of prefecture-level cities to the surrounding areas with rich cultivated land resources. This study provided theoretical support for regional sustainable development and some reference for cultivated land ecological compensation.

Blue-green infrastructure (BGI) constitutes the mainstay of urban ecological infrastructure and is a vital element in shaping urban ecological security patterns. Current research on urban BGI primarily focuses on spatio-temporal variations, driving mechanisms, connectivity, and planning management. Less attention has been paid to the spatio-temporal dynamics, coordination, and trade-off mechanisms of BGI ecosystem services (ES) under the background of rapid urbanization. We explored the spatio-temporal variations, urban-rural disparities, and trade-off and synergy effects across different scales of six ES types provided by BGI (climate regulation, air purification, flood regulation and storage, carbon sequestration, landscape culture, and habitat providing) in Wuhan from 1980 to 2020 based on the InVEST model, Getis-Ord Gi* spatial hotspot analysis, and spatial correlation analysis. The results showed that the ES provided by BGI generally exhibited a spatial distribution pattern of low levels in the central urban area and high levels in the periphery, with large areas of cold spots or insignificant regions. There were significant differences in the contribution rates of BGI to different ES, with more contribution from blue infrastructure and less from green infrastructure. The urban-rural gradient impacted fluctuations in ES, with decreasing amplitude as the distance from the city center increased. Furthermore, there were scale effects for trade-offs and synergies among ES. Trade-offs and synergies among ES coexisted at the watershed unit scale, whereas a synergistic relationship prevailed at the township and administrative district scales. Our results could offer valuable insights for the coordinated optimization and hierarchical, categorized, and zoned management of BGI’s ES functions amidst urbanization.

As an emerging urban green infrastructure and continuous productive urban landscape, urban agriculture can increase the resilience of urban food systems and reduce carbon emission in food transportation. However, there are few studies in China on the potential of urban agriculture and its role in carbon emission reduction. With semantic segmentation and spatial analysis method to identify urban agricultural potential spaces on the ground and rooftops based on satellite images and Lidar point cloud data in the main urban area of Nanjing, we estimated their potential in vegetable production and the CO₂ emission reduction effect in food transportation. The results showed that there were 2904.39 hm² of ground and 2976.96 hm² of rooftops in the study area with the potential to be used for urban agriculture. Under a scenario with 80% potential space utilization, it could produce approximately 225000 t of vegetables per year, which equated to 43.6% of annual vegetable consumption in the study area. Meanwhile, it would reduce CO₂ emission in long distance food transportation by 63700 t per year.

Developing clean energy is an important strategy to achieve global carbon neutrality. In the entire life cycle industrial chain of clean energy systems, fossil energy was directly or indirectly consumed during the processes from raw material production to waste disposal stages. The energy consumed by clean energy construction differed across regions, resulting in various carbon neutrality contributions of clean energy in different regions. We used bibliometrics to sort out the energy consumption of clean energy construction in different regions, including photovoltaic power generation, wind power, hydropower, and other clean energy sources. By combining the loss of land to decrease carbon pool during the operation of clean energy, we analyzed the current research hotspots, development status and trends, and difference in carbon emissions, and summarized the carbon neutral contributions of different regions. The intensity of clean energy carbon emission in China was significantly lower than global mean value. The average intensity of carbon emission in China in the four fields of onshore wind power, offshore wind power, hydropower, and photovoltaic power was 28.8%, 18.2%, 10.1%, and 16.7% lower than global average, respectively. For further research on carbon neutrality of clean energy, it is important to establish a unified life cycle assessment system, put forward construction strategies according to geographical differences, carry out ecological benefit evaluation for clean energy, and establish a clean energy transmission network system.

Urban ecological quality is a necessary attribute for a healthy urban ecological state. In the period of urban development from large-scale incremental construction to stock improvement and quality transformation and incremental structural adjustment, there are many gaps between urban ecological quality construction and the requirements of the new stage. There is an urgent need to understand and integrate multiple needs, and construct an indicator system to promote the balance between supply and demand of ecological resources and efficient use to enhance urban ecological quality. We used the analysis methods of CiteSpace literature analysis, relevant policy collation and questionnaire survey to systematically sort out the key points of concern and differences in understanding among the three perspectives of science, government, and the public. The results showed that all the three perspectives, i.e., science, government, and public, were more concerned with indicators related to urban green space, gray infrastructure, and policy control. The concerns of science and public addressed indicators related to urban green space the most, while government being most concerned with indicators related to gray infrastructure. Based on those findings, we developed a core urban ecological quality index system with a total of 25 indicators, covering 10 major types of urban green space, environmental quality, gray infrastructure, and so on.

Crested ibis (Nipponia nippon) is one of the endangered species in the International Union for Conservation of Nature. It is of great significance to pay attention to the changes of its suitable habitat in the context of climate change. Based on the geographical distribution data of crested ibis, the MaxEnt model was used to predict the suitable habitat of crested ibis under current scenario and future climate change. The results showed that the prediction accuracy of MaxEnt model was high, with an AUC value of 0.989. The minimum temperature of the coldest month, the mean temperature of the coldest quarter, and the mean annual rainfall were the dominant environmental factors affecting the habitat of crested ibis. Under current climate scenario, the area of moderately and highly suitable area of Chinese crested ibis was 10.65×10⁴ km², mainly distributed in Shaanxi, Sichuan, Hubei, Henan, and Gansu. In the future, the suitable habitat area of crested ibis would increase significantly under climate change, mainly distributed in Anhui, Chongqing, Guizhou, Jiangsu, Hunan, Shandong, Shaanxi, Jiangxi, Taiwan, Yunnan, Liaoning, and Fujian. In the SSP126 scenario from 2041 to 2060, the suitable habitat area of crested ibis would reach the maximum, being 139.53×10⁴ km² higher than that of the current climate scenario, accounting for 19.6% of the land area. This study could provide a basis for policy making on the conservation of crested ibis under global climate change.

The rapid urbanization adversely affects landscape pattern of mountainous cities. It is of great practical significance to explore the spatial and temporal evolution of ecological networks in mountainous areas to achieve regional ecological security. Taking Qianshan City in Anhui Province as an example, based on the land use data in 2012 and 2020, we simulated the land use situation in 2036 with PLUS model, and constructed the ecological networks in 2020 and 2036, respectively. We further analyzed its spatial and temporal evolution characteristics and explored the optimization path of ecological network. The results showed that the scale of various land use types in Qianshan City would change little from 2020 to 2036. The construction land would be centered on the built-up area, expanding in a point and block shape to the surrounding area. The ecological space would be continuously squeezed and encroached. The overall complexity and connectivity of ecological networks in Qianshan City would increase. The number and area of ecological source sites would increase, expanding spatially to the southwest and northeast. The overall density and number of ecological corridors would increase, with a lack of ecological corridor connections in the east-west direction, which need urgent improvement. The stability of ecological networks could be improved through three major measures, including protection and restoration of source sites, optimization and cultivation of corridors, and zoning control.

Modern ecology is an analytical method and philosophical concept to solve major resource, environmental and ecological issues encountered during global sustainable development. In the long-term development processes, ecology constantly absorbed and integrated knowledge from related disciplines, forms a system of modern ecology and ecosystem science that closely related to climate system, biological system and socio-economic system, and raises ecosystem principles that directly support the practices of regional ecological restoration and environmental governance. The national needs in the new stage have given ecology a new mission. It is urgently needed to summarize and condense the principles of macro-ecosystems and apply them to regional ecological restoration and environmental governance with the aim to promote the high-quality development of society and economy. Against the background of the multiple severe challenges faced by global sustainable development, we comprehensively elaborated the logics and scientific mission of ecosystem science, organized the principle system of ecosystem science related to ecological restoration and environmental governance, and discussed major academic problems in regional ecological restoration and environmental governance of China. Finally, we emphasized that China has several regional macro-ecosystems of global significances. Conducting theoretical and practical research on macro-ecosystem is not only an urgent need for the construction of ecological civilization, but also the forefront of ecosystem science research, which is expected to make new contributions to theory development of ecology, and global ecological and environmental governance.